Vitamin D, possible effects on immune function and response to SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) infection: A scoping review
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.35454/rncm.v4n3.278Keywords:
Vitamin D, COVID-19, Infection, Immunology, Dietary supplementationAbstract
The disease caused by the most recently discovered coronavirus (COVID-19), is capable of eliciting a rapid and well-coordinated innate immune response, considered as the first line of defense against viral infection. The aim of this review was to present the state of the literature in relation to vitamin D, immune system and COVID-19 up to September 2020. Several hypotheses describe the mechanisms in which vitamin D reduces the risk of infections caused by different microorganisms.
Downloads
References
Zhu N, Zhang D, Wang W, Li X, Yang B, Song J, et al. A novel coronavirus from patients with pneumonia in China, 2019. N Engl J Med. 2020;382(8):727-33. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa2001017.
Shi Y, Wang G, Cai XP, Deng JW, Zheng L, Zhu HH, et al. An overview of COVID-19. J Zhejiang Univ Sci B. 2020;21(5):343-60. doi: 10.1631/jzus.B2000083.
COVID-19: cronología de la actuación de la OMS [Internet]. Organización Mundial de la Salud. 2020. (Consultado el 8 de septiembre de 2020). Disponible en: https://www.who.int/es/news-room/detail/27-04-2020-who-timeline---covid-19
El mundo supera los 25 millones de casos de COVID-19 [Internet]. BBC News Mundo. 2020. (Consultado el 8 de septiembre de 2020). Disponible en: https://www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias-internacional-53969199
Machhi J, Herskovitz J, Senan AM, Dutta D, Nath B, Oleynikov MD, et al. The natural history, pathobiology, and clinical manifestations of SARS-CoV-2 infections. J Neuroimmune Pharmacol. 2020;15(3):359-86. doi: 10.1007/s11481-020-09944-5.
Tan W, Zhao X, Ma X, Wang W, Niu P, Xu W, et al. A novel coronavirus genome identified in a cluster of pneumonia cases - Wuhan, China 2019-2020. CCDC Weekly. 2020;2(4):61-2. doi: 10.46234/ccdcw2020.017.
Tang X, Wu C, Li X, Song Y, Yao X, Wu X, et al. On the origin and continuing evolution of SARS-CoV-2. Natl Sci Rev. 2020;7(6):1012-23. doi: 10.1093/nsr/nwaa036.
Ye Q, Wang B, Mao J. The pathogenesis and treatment of the “cytokine Storm” in COVID-19. J Infect. 2020;80(6):607-13. doi: 10.1016/j.jinf.2020.03.037.
Bourke CD, Berkley JA, Prendergast AJ. Immune dysfunction as a cause and consequence of malnutrition. Trends Immunol. 2016;37(6):386-98. doi: 10.1016/j.it.2016.04.003.
Posición de expertos sobre el manejo nutricional del coronavirus COVID-19 [Internet]. Comité Internacional para la Elaboración de Consensos y Estandarización en Nutriología (CIENUT). 2020. (Consultado el 8 de septiembre de 2020).
Disponible en: https://www.cienut.org/comite_internacional/declaraciones/paginas/declaracion_2.php
Grant WB, Lahore H, McDonnell SL, Baggerly CA, French CB, Aliano JL, et al. Evidence that vitamin D supplementation could reduce risk of influenza and COVID-19 infections and deaths. Nutrients. 2020;12(4). doi: 10.3390/nu12040988.
Munn Z, Peters MDJ, Stern C, Tufanaru C, McArthur A, Aromataris E. Systematic review or scoping review? Guidance for authors when choosing between a systematic or scoping review approach. BMC Med Res Methodol. 2018;18(1):143. doi: 10.1186/s12874-018-0611-x.
Sucharew H, Macaluso M. Progress notes: Methods for research evidence synthesis: the scoping review approach. J Hosp Med. 2019;14(7):416-8. doi: 10.12788/jhm.3248.
Arksey H, O’Malley L. Scoping studies: towards a methodological framework. Int J Soc Res Methodol. 2005;8(1):19-32. doi: 10.1080/1364557032000119616.
Hastie CE, Mackay DF, Ho F, Celis-Morales CA, Katikireddi SV, Niedzwiedz CL, et al. Vitamin D concentrations and COVID-19 infection in UK biobank. Diabetes Metab Syndr. 2020;14(4):561-5. doi: 10.1016/j.dsx.2020.04.050.
Ilie PC, Stefanescu S, Smith L. The role of vitamin D in the prevention of coronavirus disease 2019 infection and mortality. Aging Clin Exp Res. 2020;32(7):1195-8. doi: 10.1007/s40520-020-01570-8.
Whittemore PB. COVID-19 fatalities, latitude, sunlight, and vitamin D. Am J Infect Control. 2020;48(9):1042-4. doi: 10.1016/j.ajic.2020.06.193.
Meltzer DO, Best TJ, Zhang H, Vokes T, Arora V, Solway J. Association of vitamin D status and other clinical characteristics with COVID-19 test results. JAMA Netw Open. 2020;3(9):e2019722. doi: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.19722.
Ohaegbulam KC, Swalih M, Patel P, Smith MA, Perrin R. Vitamin D supplementation in COVID-19 patients: A clinical case series. Am J Ther. 2020;27(5): e485-90. doi: 10.1097/MJT.0000000000001222.
Caccialanza R, Laviano A, Lobascio F, Montagna E, Bruno R, Ludovisi S, et al. Early nutritional supplementation in non-critically ill patients hospitalized for the 2019 novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19): Rationale and feasibility of a shared pragmatic protocol. Nutrition. 2020;74:110835. doi: 10.1016/j.nut.2020.110835.
Brenner H, Holleczek B, Schöttker B. Vitamin D insufficiency and deficiency and mortality from respiratory diseases in a cohort of older adults: Potential for limiting the death toll during and beyond the COVID-19 pandemic? Nutrients. 2020;12(8):2488. doi: 10.3390/nu12082488.
D’Avolio A, Avataneo V, Manca A, Cusato J, De Nicolò A, Lucchini R, et al. 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentrations are lower in patients with positive PCR for SARS-CoV-2. Nutrients. 2020;12(5):1359. doi: 10.3390/nu12051359.
Beigmohammadi MT, Bitarafan S, Hoseindokht A, Abdollahi A, Amoozadeh L, Mahmoodi M, et al. Impact of vitamins A, B, C, D, and E supplementation on improvement and mortality rate in ICU patients with coronavirus-19: A structured summary of a study protocol for a randomized controlled trial. Trials. 2020;21(1):614. doi: 10.1186/s13063-020-04547-0.
Fasano A, Cereda E, Barichella M, Cassani E, Ferri V, Zecchinelli AL, et al. COVID ‐19 in Parkinson’s disease patients living in Lombardy, Italy. Mov Disord. 2020;35(7):1089-93. doi: 10.1002/mds.28176.
Singh S, Kaur R, Singh RK. Revisiting the role of vitamin D levels in the prevention of COVID-19 infection and mortality in European countries post infections peak. Aging Clin Exp Res. 2020;32:1609-12. doi: 10.1007/s40520-020-01619-8.
Kaufman HW, Niles JK, Kroll MH, Bi C, Holick MF. SARS-CoV-2 positivity rates associated with circulating 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels. PLoS One. 2020;15(9):e0239252. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0239252.
Pizzini A, Aichner M, Sahanic S, Böhm A, Egger A, Hoermann G, et al. Impact of vitamin D deficiency on COVID-19 - A prospective analysis from the CovILD registry. Nutrients. 2020;12(9):2775. doi: 10.3390/nu12092775.
Tan CW, Ho LP, Kalimuddin S, Cherng BPZ, Teh YE, Thien SY, et al. Cohort study to evaluate effect of vitamin D, magnesium, and vitamin B12 in combination on severe outcome progression in older patients with coronavirus (COVID-19). Nutrition. 2020;79-80:111017. doi: 10.1016/j.nut.2020.111017.
Arvinte C, Singh M, Marik PE. Serum levels of vitamin C and vitamin D in a cohort of critically ill COVID-19 patients of a North American Community Hospital Intensive Care Unit in May 2020: A pilot study. Med Drug Discov. 2020;8:100064. doi: 10.1016/j.medidd.2020.100064.
Raisi-Estabragh Z, McCracken C, Bethell MS, Cooper J, Cooper C, Caulfield MJ, et al. Greater risk of severe COVID-19 in black, Asian and minority ethnic populations is not explained by cardiometabolic, socioeconomic or behavioral factors, or by 25(OH)-vitamin D status: Study of 1326 cases from the UK Biobank. J Public Health. 2020;42(3):451-60. doi: 10.1093/pubmed/fdaa095.
Daneshkhah A, Agrawal V, Eshein A, Subramanian H, Roy HK, Backman V. The possible role of vitamin d in suppressing cytokine storm and associated mortality in COVID-19 patients. medRxiv. 2020. doi: 10.1101/2020.04.08.20058578.
Daneshkhah A, Agrawal V, Eshein A, Subramanian H, Roy HK, Backman V. Evidence for possible association of vitamin D status with cytokine storm and unregulated inflammation in COVID-19 patients. Aging Clin Exp Res. 2020;32(10):2141-58. doi: 10.1007/s40520-020-01677-y.
Baktash V, Hosack T, Patel N, Shah S, Kandiah P, van Den Abbeele K, et al. Vitamin D status and outcomes for hospitalised older patients with COVID-19. Postgrad Med J. 2020. doi: 10.1136/postgradmedj-2020-138712.
Hastie CE, Pell JP, Sattar N. Vitamin D and COVID-19 infection and mortality in UK Biobank. Eur J Nutr. 2020;60(1):545-8. doi: 10.1007/s00394-020-02372-4.
Maghbooli Z, Ebrahimi M, Shirvani A, Nasiri M, Pazoki M, Kafan S, et al. Vitamin D sufficiency reduced risk for morbidity and mortality in COVID-19 patients. SSRN. 2020. doi: 10.2139/ssrn.3616008.
Darling AL, Ahmadi KR, Ward KA, Harvey NC, Alves AC, Dunn-Waters DK, et al. Vitamin D status, body mass index, ethnicity and COVID-19: Initial analysis of the first-reported UK Biobank COVID-19 positive cases (n 580) compared with negative controls (n 723). medRxiv. 2020. doi: 10.1101/2020.04.29.20084277.
Butler-Laporte G, Nakanishi T, Mooser V, Morrison DR, Abdullah T, Adeleye O, et al. Vitamin D and COVID-19 susceptibility and severity: A mendelian randomization study. medRxiv. 2020. doi: 10.1101/2020.09.08.20190975.
Glinsky GV. Tripartite combination of candidate pandemic mitigation agents: Vitamin D, quercetin, and estradiol manifest properties of medicinal agents for targeted mitigation of the COVID-19 pandemic defined by genomics-guided tracing of SARS-CoV-2 targets in human cells. Biomedicines. 2020;8(5):129. doi: 10.3390/biomedicines8050129.
Pugach IZ, Pugach S. Strong correlation between prevalence of severe vitamin D deficiency and population mortality rate from COVID-19 in Europe. Wien Klin Wochenschr. 2021. doi: 10.1007/s00508-021-01833-y.
Pinzon RT, Angela A, Pradana AW. Vitamin D deficiency among patients with COVID-19: Case series and recent literature review. Trop Med Health. 2020;48(1):102. doi: 10.1186/s41182-020-00277-w.
Li X, van Geffen J, van Weele M, Zhang X, He Y, Meng X, et al. Genetically-predicted vitamin D status, ambient UVB during the pandemic and COVID-19 risk in UK biobank: Mendelian randomisation study. medRxiv. 2020;32(21):32-9. doi: 10.9734/jpri/2020/v32i2130750.
Israel A, Cicurel AA, Feldhamer I, Dror Y, Giveon SM, Gillis D, et al. The link between vitamin D deficiency and COVID-19 in a large population. medRxiv. 2020. doi: 10.1101/2020.09.04.20188268.
Meltzer DO, Best TJ, Zhang H, Vokes T, Arora V, Solway J. Association of vitamin D deficiency and treatment with COVID-19 incidence. medRxiv. 2020. doi: 10.1101/2020.05.08.20095893.
Lokhande KB, Banerjee T, Swamy KV, Deshpande M. An in silico scientific basis for LL-37 as a therapeutic and vitamin D as preventive for COVID-19. chemRxiv. 2020;(1). doi: 10.26434/chemrxiv.12928202.v1.
Emilion E, Emilion R. Vitamin D Status and COVID-19: Some implications. Research Square. 2020;(1). doi: 10.21203/rs.3.rs-65373/v1.
Hernández LA, Fernández PM, Kuzior A, Esteban NRM, Santana-Suarez AD, Quintana-Arroyo S, et al. Vitamin D deficit in type 2 diabetes patients during COVID-19 lockdown with and without supplementation. Endocrine Abstracts. 2020;70(EP552). doi: 10.1530/endoabs.70.EP552.
Macaya F, Espejo C, Valls A, Fernández-Ortiz A, González del CJ, Martín-Sánchez FJ, et al. Interaction between age and vitamin D deficiency in severe COVID-19 infection. Nutr Hosp. 2020;37(5):1039-42. doi: 10.20960/nh.03193.
Entrenas Castillo M, Entrenas Costa LM, Vaquero Barrios JM, Alcalá Díaz JF, López Miranda J, Bouillon R, et al. Effect of calcifediol treatment and best available therapy versus best available therapy on intensive care unit admission and mortality among patients hospitalized for COVID-19: A pilot randomized clinical study. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 2020;203:105751. doi: 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2020.105751.
Hernández JL, Nan D, Fernández-Ayala M, García-Unzueta M, Hernández-Hernández MA, López-Hoyos M, et al. Vitamin D status in hospitalized patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2021;106(3):e1343-53. doi: 10.1210/clinem/dgaa733.
Goddek S. Vitamin D3 and K2 and their potential contribution to reducing the COVID-19 mortality rate. Int J Infect Dis. 2020;99:286-90. doi: 10.1016/j.ijid.2020.07.080.
Cao Z, Wu Y, Faucon E, Sabatier JM. SARS-CoV-2 & COVID-19: Key-roles of the ‘renin-angiotensin’ system/vitamin d impacting drug and vaccine developments. Infect Disor Drug Targets. 2020;20(3):348-9. doi: 10.2174/1871526520999200505174704.
Charoenngam N, Holick MF. Immunologic effects of vitamin D on human health and disease. Nutrients. 2020;12(7):2097. doi: 10.3390/nu12072097.
Fakhoury HMA, Kvietys PR, AlKattan W, Anouti FA, Elahi MA, Karras SN, et al. Vitamin D and intestinal homeostasis: Barrier, microbiota, and immune modulation. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 2020;200:105663. doi: 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2020.105663.
Carlberg C, Campbell MJ. Vitamin D receptor signaling mechanisms: Integrated actions of a well-defined transcription factor. Steroids. 2013;78(2):127-36. doi: 10.1016/j.steroids.2012.10.019.
Meftahi GH, Jangravi Z, Sahraei H, Bahari Z. The possible pathophysiology mechanism of cytokine storm in elderly adults with COVID-19 infection: The contribution of “inflame-aging”. Inflamm Res. 2020;69(9):825-39. doi: 10.1007/s00011-020-01372-8.
Mohammed HMN. Vitamin D supplements improve efficacy of minocycline, N-acetylcysteine and aspirin triple therapy to COVID-19 infection. Saudi J Biomed Res. 2020;5(4):59-60. doi: 10.36348/sjbr.2020.v05i04.005.
Biesalski HK. Vitamin D deficiency and co-morbidities in COVID-19 patients - A fatal relationship? NFS J. 2020;20:10-21. doi: 10.1016/j.nfs.2020.06.001.
Cooper ID, Crofts CAP, DiNicolantonio JJ, Malhotra A, Elliott B, Kyriakidou Y, et al. Relationships between hyperinsulinaemia, magnesium, vitamin D, thrombosis and COVID-19: Rationale for clinical management. Open Heart. 2020;7(2):e001356. doi: 10.1136/openhrt-2020-001356.
Benskin LL. A basic review of the preliminary evidence that COVID-19 risk and severity is increased in vitamin D deficiency. Front Public Health. 2020;8:513. doi: 10.3389/fpubh.2020.00513.
Silberstein M. Correlation between premorbid IL-6 levels and COVID-19 mortality: Potential role for vitamin D. Int Immunopharmacol. 2020;88:106995. doi: 10.1016/j.intimp.2020.106995.
López-Romero R, Nambo-Lucio MJ, Salcedo-Carrillo E, Hernández-Cueto MA, Salcedo-Vargas M. El gran desafío de la latencia de SARS-CoV-2: el testículo como reservorio. Gac Med México. 2020;156:328-33. doi: 10.24875/GMM.20000295.
Ravioli S, Ochsner H, Lindner G. Reactivation of COVID-19 pneumonia: A report of two cases. J Infect. 2020;81(2):e72-3. doi: 10.1016/j.jinf.2020.05.008.
Elsaie ML, Youssef EA, Nada HA. Herpes zoster might be an indicator for latent COVID-19 infection. Dermatol Ther. 2020;33(4):e13666. doi: 10.1111/dth.13666.
Shors AR. Herpes zoster and severe acute herpetic neuralgia as a complication of COVID-19 infection. JAAD Case Rep. 2020;6(7):656-7. doi: 10.1016/j.jdcr.2020.05.012.
Zwart SR, Smith SM. Vitamin D and COVID-19: Lessons from spaceflight analogs. J Nutr. 2020;150(10):2624-7. doi: 10.1093/jn/nxaa233.
Kara M, Ekiz T, Ricci V, Kara Ö, Chang KV, Özçakar L. ‘Scientific strabismus’ or two related pandemics: Coronavirus disease and vitamin D deficiency. Br J Nutr. 2020;124(7):736-41. doi: 10.1017/S0007114520001749.
Rhodes JM, Subramanian S, Laird E, Griffin G, Kenny RA. Perspective: Vitamin D deficiency and COVID‐19 severity - plausibly linked by latitude, ethnicity, impacts on cytokines, ACE2 and thrombosis. J Intern Med. 2020. doi: 10.1111/joim.13149.
Ramaiah P, Elfaki BAAM, Mustafa MHE. Battle with COVID-19: Role of vitamin D and zinc as a preventive strategy. J Pharm Res Int. 2020:32-9. doi: 10.9734/jpri/2020/v32i2130750.
Jones KS, Assar S, Harnpanich D, Bouillon R, Lambrechts D, Prentice A, et al. 25(OH)D2 Half-life is shorter than 25(OH)D3 half-life and is influenced by DBP concentration and genotype. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2014;99(9):3373-81. doi: 10.1210/jc.2014-1714.
Fernandes MR, Barreto W. Association between physical activity and vitamin D: A narrative literature review. Rev Assoc Médica Bras. 2017;63(6):550-6. doi: 10.1590/1806-9282.63.06.550.
McCartney DM, Byrne DG. Optimisation of vitamin D status for enhanced immuno-protection against COVID-19. Ir Med J. 2020;113:58.
Siqueira de AMI, Cavalcanti de MPF, Santos de OTLP, da Silva LNM, da Costa RI, Menezes ST. Vitamin A and D deficiencies in the prognosis of respiratory tract infections: A systematic review with perspectives for COVID-19 and a critical analysis on supplementation. SciELO. 2020. doi: 10.1590/SciELOPreprints.839.
Siddiqi M. Vitamin D deficiency, COVID-19 and BAME community. SSRN. 2020. doi: 10.2139/ssrn.3690987.
Ghasemian R, Shamshirian A, Heydari K, Malekan M, Alizadeh-Navaei R, Ebrahimzadeh MA, et al. The role of vitamin D in the age of COVID-19: A systematic review and meta-analysis along with an ecological approach. medRxiv. 2020. doi: 10.1101/2020.06.05.20123554.
Mahdavi AM. A brief review of interplay between vitamin D and angiotensin‐converting enzyme 2: Implications for a potential treatment for COVID ‐19. Rev Med Virol. 2020:1-6. doi: 10.1002/rmv.2119.
Tomaschitz A, Pilz S, Ritz E, Grammer T, Drechsler C, Boehm BO, et al. Independent association between 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D, 25-hydroxyvitamin D and the renin-angiotensin system. Clin Chim Acta. 2010;411(17-18):1354-60. doi: 10.1016/j.cca.2010.05.037.
Mattioli AV, Sciomer S, Cocchi C, Maffei S, Gallina S. Quarantine during COVID-19 outbreak: Changes in diet and physical activity increase the risk of cardiovascular disease. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis. 2020;30(9):1409-17. doi: 10.1016/j.numecd.2020.05.020.
Gröber U, Kisters K. Influence of drugs on vitamin D and calcium metabolism. Dermatoendocrinol. 2012;4(2):158-66. doi: 10.4161/derm.20731.
Toubiana J, Poirault C, Corsia A, Bajolle F, Fourgeaud J, Angoulvant F, et al. Outbreak of Kawasaki disease in children during COVID-19 pandemic: A prospective observational study in Paris, France. medRxiv. 2020. doi: 10.1101/2020.05.10.20097394.
Stagi S, Rigante D, Lepri G, Matucci M, Falcini F. Severe vitamin D deficiency in patients with Kawasaki disease: A potential role in the risk to develop heart vascular abnormalities? Clin Rheumatol. 2016;35(7):1865-72. doi: 10.1007/s10067-015-2970-6.
Ribeiro H, de Souza de SKV, Oliver SL, de Carvalho RPH, Mendes MM, Charlton K, et al. Does vitamin D play a role in the management of COVID-19 in Brazil? Rev Saúde Pública. 2020;54:53. doi: 10.11606/s1518-8787.2020054002545.
Gilbert-Diamond D, Baylin A, Mora-Plazas M, Marin C, Arsenault JE, Hughes MD, et al. Vitamin D deficiency and anthropometric indicators of adiposity in school-age children: A prospective study. Am J Clin Nutr. 2010;92(6):1446-51. doi: 10.3945/ajcn.2010.29746.
Ekiz T, Kara M, Özçakar L. Revisiting vitamin D and home-based exercises for patients with sleep apnea facing the COVID-19 quarantine. J Clin Sleep Med. 2020;16(8):1409-10. doi: 10.5664/jcsm.8586.
Singh SK, Jain R, Singh S. Vitamin D deficiency in patients with diabetes and COVID-19 infection. Diabetes Metab Syndr. 2020;14(5):1033-5. doi: 10.1016/j.dsx.2020.06.071.
Hribar CA, Cobbold PH, Church FC. Potential role of vitamin D in the elderly to resist COVID-19 and to slow progression of Parkinson’s disease. Brain Sci. 2020;10(5):284. doi: 10.3390/brainsci10050284.
Martineau AR, Jolliffe DA, Hooper RL, Greenberg L, Aloia JF, Bergman P, et al. Vitamin D supplementation to prevent acute respiratory tract infections: Systematic review and meta-analysis of individual participant data. BMJ. 2017;356:i6583. doi: 10.1136/bmj.i6583.
Crane-Godreau MA, Clem KJ, Payne P, Fiering S. Vitamin D deficiency and air pollution exacerbate COVID-19 through suppression of antiviral peptide LL37. Front Public Health. 2020;8:232. doi: 10.3389/fpubh.2020.00232.
Orrù B, Szekeres-Bartho J, Bizzarri M, Spiga AM, Unfer V. Inhibitory effects of vitamin D on inflammation and IL-6 release. A further support for COVID-19 management? Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci. 2020;24(15):8187-93. doi: 10.26355/eurrev_202008_22507.
Xu Y, Baylink DJ, Chen CS, Reeves ME, Xiao J, Lacy C, et al. The importance of vitamin D metabolism as a potential prophylactic, immunoregulatory and neuroprotective treatment for COVID-19. J Transl Med. 2020;18(1):322. doi: 10.1186/s12967-020-02488-5.
Martín GVM, Inserra F, Tajer CD, Mariani J, Ferder L, Reiter RJ, et al. Lungs as target of COVID-19 infection: Protective common molecular mechanisms of vitamin D and melatonin as a new potential synergistic treatment. Life Sci. 2020;254:117808. doi: 10.1016/j.lfs.2020.117808.
Alexander J, Tinkov A, Strand TA, Alehagen U, Skalny A, Aaseth J. Early nutritional interventions with zinc, selenium and vitamin D for raising anti-viral resistance against progressive COVID-19. Nutrients. 2020;12(8):2358. doi: 10.3390/nu12082358.
Rafiullah M. Can a combination of AT1R antagonist and vitamin D treat the lung complication of COVID-19? Am J Med Sci. 2020;360(4):338-41. doi: 10.1016/j.amjms.2020.07.018.
Jain SK, Parsanathan R. Can vitamin D and L-cysteine co-supplementation reduce 25(OH)-vitamin D deficiency and the mortality associated with COVID-19 in African Americans? J Am Coll Nutr. 2020;39(8):694-9. doi: 10.1080/07315724.2020.1789518.
Karcioglu BL, Hekim N. The role of DBP gene polymorphisms in the prevalence of new coronavirus disease 2019 infection and mortality rate. J Med Virol. 2020. doi: 10.1002/jmv.26409.
Speeckaert MM, De Buyzere ML, Delanghe JR. Vitamin D binding protein polymorphism and COVID‐19. J Med Virol. 2021;93(2):705-7. doi: 10.1002/jmv.26508.
Vásquez-Awad D, Cano-Gutiérrez CA, Gómez-Ortiz M, González MA, Guzmán-Moreno R, Martínez-Reyes JI, et al. Vitamina D. Consenso colombiano de expertos. Medicina. 2017;39(2):140-57.
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2021 Daniel Armando Niño Parra, Elpidia Poveda Espinosa, Mercedes Mora-Plazas
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.